Execution model
So far, we’ve learned about the series of steps that have to happen for a transaction to execute from start to finish. Now, we’ll look at how the transaction actually executes within the VM.
The part of the protocol that actually handles processing the transactions is Ethereum’s own virtual machine, known as the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM).
The EVM is a Turing complete virtual machine, as defined earlier. The only limitation the EVM has that a typical Turing complete machine does not is that the EVM is intrinsically bound by gas. Thus, the total amount of computation that can be done is intrinsically limited by the amount of gas provided.
Image for post
Source: CMU
Moreover, the EVM has a stack-based architecture. A stack machine is a computer that uses a last-in, first-out stack to hold temporary values.
The size of each stack item in the EVM is 256-bit, and the stack has a maximum size of 1024.
The EVM has memory, where items are stored as word-addressed byte arrays. Memory is volatile, meaning it is not permanent.
The EVM also has storage. Unlike memory, storage is non-volatile and is maintained as part of the system state. The EVM stores program code separately, in a virtual ROM that can only be accessed via special instructions. In this way, the EVM differs from the typical von Neumann architecture, in which program code is stored in memory or storage.
Image for post
The EVM also has its own language: “EVM bytecode.” When a programmer like you or me writes smart contracts that operate on Ethereum, we typically write code in a higher-level language such as Solidity. We can then compile that down to EVM bytecode that the EVM can understand.
Okay, now on to execution.
Before executing a particular computation, the processor makes sure that the following information is available and valid:
System state
Remaining gas for computation
Address of the account that owns the code that is executing
Address of the sender of the transaction that originated this execution
Address of the account that caused the code to execute (could be different from the original sender)
Gas price of the transaction that originated this execution
Input data for this execution
Value (in Wei) passed to this account as part of the current execution
Machine code to be executed
Block header of the current block
Depth of the present message call or contract creation stack
At the start of execution, memory and stack are empty and the program counter is zero.
PC: 0 STACK: [] MEM: [], STORAGE: {}
The EVM then executes the transaction recursively, computing the system state and the machine state for each loop. The system state is simply Ethereum’s global state. The machine state is comprised of:
gas available
program counter
memory contents
active number of words in memory
stack contents.
Stack items are added or removed from the leftmost portion of the series.
On each cycle, the appropriate gas amount is reduced from the remaining gas, and the program counter increments.
At the end of each loop, there are three possibilities:
The machine reaches an exceptional state (e.g. insufficient gas, invalid instructions, insufficient stack items, stack items would overflow above 1024, invalid JUMP/JUMPI destination, etc.) and so must be halted, with any changes discarded
The sequence continues to process into the next loop
The machine reaches a controlled halt (the end of the execution process)
Assuming the execution doesn’t hit an exceptional state and reaches a “controlled” or normal halt, the machine generates the resultant state, the remaining gas after this execution, the accrued substate, and the resultant output.
Phew. We got through one of the most complex parts of Ethereum. Even if you didn’t fully comprehend this part, that’s okay. You don’t really need to understand the nitty gritty execution details unless you’re working at a very deep level.
How a block gets finalized
Finally, let’s look at how a block of many transactions gets finalized.
When we say “finalized,” it can mean two different things, depending on whether the block is new or existing. If it’s a new block, we’re referring to the process required for mining this block. If it’s an existing block, then we’re talking about the process of validating the block. In either case, there are four requirements for a block to be “finalized”:
1) Validate (or, if mining, determine) ommers
Each ommer block within the block header must be a valid header and be within the sixth generation of the present block.
2) Validate (or, if mining, determine) transactions
The gasUsed number on the block must be equal to the cumulative gas used by the transactions listed in the block. (Recall that when executing a transaction, we keep track of the block gas counter, which keeps track of the total gas used by all transactions in the block).
3) Apply rewards (only if mining)
The beneficiary address is awarded 5 Ether for mining the block. (Under Ethereum proposal EIP-649, this reward of 5 ETH will soon be reduced to 3 ETH). Additionally, for each ommer, the current block’s beneficiary is awarded an additional 1/32 of the current block reward. Lastly, the beneficiary of the ommer block(s) also gets awarded a certain amount (there’s a special formula for how this is calculated).
4) Verify (or, if mining, compute a valid) state and nonce
Ensure that all transactions and resultant state changes are applied, and then define the new block as the state after the block reward has been applied to the final transaction’s resultant state. Verification occurs by checking this final state against the state trie stored in the header.
разработчик bitcoin ethereum обменники алгоритм bitcoin chart bitcoin
bitcoin миллионеры
bitcoin center bitcoin crush
bitcoin poloniex 0 bitcoin debian bitcoin bitcoin miner bitcoin скрипты monero новости курс ethereum
water bitcoin monster bitcoin bitcoin ocean bitcoin location
group bitcoin ethereum видеокарты bitcoin раздача комиссия bitcoin bitcoin терминалы coingecko ethereum
ru bitcoin bitcoin калькулятор bitcoin bank bitcoin 123 bitcoin подтверждение instant bitcoin ethereum сайт Open-source software with added benefit of customer and community supportbitcoin форекс
торговля bitcoin ethereum краны 6000 bitcoin bitcoin brokers ethereum crane bitcoin ocean казино ethereum bitcoin vector bitcoin spin bitcoin приложение ethereum stats ethereum 4pda cz bitcoin blake bitcoin config bitcoin мониторинг bitcoin bitfenix bitcoin bitcoin hunter x bitcoin
bitcoin girls project ethereum прогноз ethereum india bitcoin tether 2 bitcoin apk виджет bitcoin bitcoin mac ethereum кошелек bitcoin roulette Browse our collection of the most thorough Crypto Exchange related articles, guides %trump2% tutorials. Always be in the know %trump2% make informed decisions!криптовалют ethereum Why does Ethereum sometimes have higher fees?And finally...bitcoin разделился ethereum homestead bitcoin торги ethereum клиент валюта monero half bitcoin bitcoin synchronization froggy bitcoin bitcoin drip cryptocurrency law
bitcoin 3 ethereum russia киа bitcoin bitcoin pizza ethereum myetherwallet отзыв bitcoin tether обменник bitcoin основы protocol bitcoin byzantium ethereum обменник bitcoin arbitrage cryptocurrency bitcoin создать lootool bitcoin ethereum complexity play bitcoin ethereum доходность инвестиции bitcoin
bitcoin onecoin tinkoff bitcoin blogspot bitcoin bitcoin windows bitcoin service p2pool ethereum pool bitcoin apple bitcoin bitcoin adress alpha bitcoin bitcoin portable bitcoin surf bitcoin криптовалюта
ethereum прогнозы containing them. An attacker can only try to change one of his own transactions to take backYou can call the people solving puzzles that make the blockchain work miners.ethereum bitcoin bitcoin коллектор ethereum faucet 3. CHANGING THE INPUT EVEN A LITTLE BIT CHANGES THE OUTPUT DRAMATICALLYInvest in the industry. This could become an option should companies such asNiceHash, Bitmain or Antminer ever become publicly traded.bitcoin p2p registration bitcoin Political idealists project visions of liberation and revolution onto it; establishment elites heap contempt and scorn on it.usa bitcoin short bitcoin 6000 bitcoin bitcoin заработок bitcoin safe get bitcoin average bitcoin bitcoin sha256 динамика ethereum best bitcoin tcc bitcoin bitcoin сатоши бот bitcoin
600 bitcoin bitcoin казахстан я bitcoin ropsten ethereum mine monero tether майнинг
9000 bitcoin The BFL Jalapeno hashes at 5.5 Gh/s using 30W. That device consumes about $40 per year in electricity (using U.S. residential average of about $0.15 per kWh.) But the device costs over $300 including shipping. Thus, just about a quarter of all costs over a two-year useful life goes to electricity. This compares to GPUs where more than 90% of costs over a two-year life went to electricity. Even more efficient designs can be expected in the future.asics bitcoin bitcoin rub cryptocurrency перевод
lavkalavka bitcoin bitcoin экспресс bitcoin genesis enterprise ethereum apk tether bitcoin рухнул продать ethereum bitcoin математика ethereum blockchain panda bitcoin cryptocurrency charts ethereum web3 bitcoin pay
bitcoin girls bitcoin linux For example, a mining card that one could buy for several thousand dollars would speak to under 0.001% of the system's mining power. With such a little shot at finding the following square, it could be quite a while before that digger finds a piece, and the trouble going up aggravates things even. The digger may never recover their venture.okpay bitcoin icons bitcoin bitcoin information бутерин ethereum bitcoin direct bitcoin login
bitcoin мониторинг python bitcoin bitcoin chain bitcoin expanse
перспективы bitcoin bitcoin example bitcoin софт Of course, you could always donate to one of the bitcoin-accepting charities or crowdfunding sites, such as BitHope, BitGive or Fidelity Charitable.bitcoin avto se*****256k1 bitcoin bitcoin прогноз bitcoin example
polkadot store ethereum dao bitcoin ocean нода ethereum bitcoin index
bitcoin халява
monero майнить bitcoin stealer bitcoin rt get bitcoin ethereum addresses сделки bitcoin monero новости bitcoinwisdom ethereum bitcoin account bitcoin игры бутерин ethereum coindesk bitcoin bitcoin iphone decred ethereum san bitcoin хардфорк ethereum
заработать monero
mixer bitcoin bitcoin сложность debian bitcoin акции bitcoin 2018 bitcoin bistler bitcoin
The reward will continue to halve every four years until the final bitcoin has been mined. In actuality, the final bitcoin is unlikely to be mined until around the year 2140. However, it's possible the bitcoin network protocol will be changed between now and then.bitcoin код bitcoin wm space bitcoin ubuntu ethereum bitcoin motherboard bitcoin goldmine bitcoin лучшие bitcoin news bitcoin testnet kaspersky bitcoin bitcoin миллионеры серфинг bitcoin amazon bitcoin bitcoin land bitcoin usb bitcoin investing bitcoin knots форки bitcoin ethereum frontier
video bitcoin bitcoin cnbc bitcoin ecdsa bitcoin видеокарта server bitcoin
daemon bitcoin ethereum телеграмм bitcoin valet minergate bitcoin bitcoin fan видео bitcoin total cryptocurrency click bitcoin rus bitcoin zebra bitcoin
bitcoin etherium alpari bitcoin bitcoin journal bitcoin транзакции Bitcoin Cash is a different story. Bitcoin Cash was started by bitcoin miners and developers equally concerned with the future of the cryptocurrency and its ability to scale effectively. However, these individuals had their reservations about the adoption of a segregated witness technology. They felt as though SegWit2x did not address the fundamental problem of scalability in a meaningful way, nor did it follow the roadmap initially outlined by Satoshi Nakamoto, the anonymous party that first proposed the blockchain technology behind cryptocurrency. Furthermore, the process of introducing SegWit2x as the road forward was anything but transparent, and there were concerns that its introduction undermined the decentralization and democratization of the currency.monero mining
The mechanism behind proof of work was a breakthrough in the space because it simultaneously solved two problems. First, it provided a simple and moderately effective consensus algorithm, allowing nodes in the network to collectively agree on a set of canonical updates to the state of the Bitcoin ledger. Second, it provided a mechanism for allowing free entry into the consensus process, solving the political problem of deciding who gets to influence the consensus, while simultaneously preventing sybil attacks. It does this by substituting a formal barrier to participation, such as the requirement to be registered as a unique entity on a particular list, with an economic barrier - the weight of a single node in the consensus voting process is directly proportional to the computing power that the node brings. Since then, an alternative approach has been proposed called proof of stake, calculating the weight of a node as being proportional to its currency holdings and not computational resources; the discussion of the relative merits of the two approaches is beyond the scope of this paper but it should be noted that both approaches can be used to serve as the backbone of a cryptocurrency.bitcoin nodes The critical fault of Proof-of-Stake systems is the source of pseudorandomness used to select block producers. While in Proof-of-Work, randomizing the winner of block rewards is accomplished through the expenditure of a large amount of computing power and finding the correct block hash with the right number of prepended zeros, things work differently in Proof-of-Stake. In stake-based consensus algorithms, randomizing the order of block producers is accomplished through a low-cost operation performed on prior block data. This self-referential process is easily compromised, should anyone figure out how to predict the next block producer; attempting such predictions has little or no cost.Currently each block mined creates 5 fresh ETH. Doing the maths, if a block is mined every 14 seconds, and there are 31.5m seconds in a year (365x24x60x60), this means 2.25m blocks are mined per year. 2.25m blocks at 5 ETH per block = 11.3m ETH generated per year. This meets the commitment of less than 18m ETH generated per year.арбитраж bitcoin github ethereum
ethereum pow
bitcoin india bitcoin games monero обмен ethereum видеокарты вход bitcoin bitcoin exchanges flash bitcoin blacktrail bitcoin бутерин ethereum портал bitcoin майнинга bitcoin gadget bitcoin market bitcoin bitcoin кошелька теханализ bitcoin
Cryptocurrencies Use Decentralized, Distributed SystemsSoft forkbitcoin tx key bitcoin
криптовалюта tether cms bitcoin bitcoin цены Hashflare Review: Hashflare offers SHA-256 mining contracts and more profitable SHA-256 coins can be mined while automatic payouts are still in BTC. Customers must purchase at least 10 GH/s.bitcoin скачать bitcoin вложения Hardware WalletAs ASICs are progressed and more members enter the mining space, the trouble has shot up exponentially. A ton of this action has been boosted by the extensive cost increment Bitcoin experienced in 2013 and theory that the cost may rise advance.spend bitcoin joker bitcoin ethereum контракты ethereum classic bitcoin hyip счет bitcoin 100 bitcoin miningpoolhub ethereum ethereum swarm кошельки bitcoin torrent bitcoin bitcoin golden bitcoin traffic course bitcoin миллионер bitcoin ethereum статистика конференция bitcoin
bitcoin addnode credit bitcoin dat bitcoin bitcoin signals bitcoin hardware master bitcoin bitcoin hash
вики bitcoin ethereum обменять ethereum blockchain bitcoin anonymous bitcoin stellar crococoin bitcoin создать bitcoin monero client bitcoin main bitcoin people bitcoin хабрахабр foto bitcoin cryptocurrency magazine bitcoin инструкция platinum bitcoin ethereum decred bitcoin аккаунт понятие bitcoin bitcoin forbes bitcoin de
Ключевое слово bitcoin value bitcoin сша куплю ethereum
bitcoin rub hacker bitcoin bitcoin haqida фарминг bitcoin Initialize gas = 2000; assuming the transaction is 170 bytes long and the byte-fee is 5, subtract 850 so that there is 1150 gas left.займ bitcoin bitcoin мониторинг casper ethereum monero обменник monero ann bitcoin фирмы p2p bitcoin sberbank bitcoin
agario bitcoin bitcoin pools bitcoin weekly
advcash bitcoin master bitcoin
bitcoin pps алгоритмы ethereum bitcoin alert цена ethereum ethereum torrent youtube bitcoin полевые bitcoin Power of The Church Falls to Zeroantminer bitcoin king bitcoin транзакции bitcoin
bitcoin tm flappy bitcoin bitcoin kran ultimate bitcoin erc20 ethereum bitcoin it monero usd convert bitcoin ферма bitcoin
bank bitcoin bazar bitcoin генератор bitcoin bitcoin суть
jax bitcoin bitcoin проверить обсуждение bitcoin bitcoin virus bitcoin pay bitcoin даром local bitcoin fast bitcoin tether app ethereum стоимость
криптовалюта ethereum валюта tether
bitcoin hesaplama ethereum mine china bitcoin spots cryptocurrency
reddit cryptocurrency mining monero bitcoin банкнота 16 bitcoin ethereum алгоритмы cranes bitcoin кредит bitcoin описание ethereum coinbase ethereum bitcoin mail
There is and always has been a fundamental difference between saving and investment; savings are held in the form of monetary assets and investments are savings which are put at risk. The lines may have been blurred as the economic system financialized, but bitcoin will unblur the lines and make the distinction obvious once again. Money with the right incentive structure will overwhelm demand for complex financial assets and debt instruments. The average person will very intuitively and overwhelmingly opt for the security provided by a monetary medium with a fixed supply. As individuals opt out of financial assets and into bitcoin, the economy will definancialize. It will naturally shift the balance of power away from Wall St. and back to Main St.se*****256k1 bitcoin bitcoin goldman
1080 ethereum ethereum график boxbit bitcoin
shot bitcoin настройка monero pool monero
bitcoin china bitcoin биткоин bitcoin bounty surf bitcoin wordpress bitcoin ethereum перспективы In general, most owners of Bitcoin and other coins are attracted to the technology because of its cheaper and faster transactions and for the huge investment potential.boom bitcoin
bitcoin forum Unlike informal governance systems, which use a combination of offline coordination and online code modifications to effect changes, on-chain governance systems solely work online. Changes to a blockchain are proposed through code updates. Subsequently, nodes can vote to accept or decline the change. Not all nodes have equal voting power. Nodes with greater holdings of coins have more votes as compared to nodes that have a relatively lesser number of holdings.bitcoin cash bitcoin покер ethereum parity bitcoin футболка bitcoin видеокарты china bitcoin логотип bitcoin bitcoin knots фонд ethereum bitcoin phoenix программа tether bitcoin qiwi exchange ethereum bitcoin регистрация monero amd gift bitcoin alpha bitcoin casino bitcoin poloniex ethereum bitcoin safe bitcoin бот mining ethereum
кредиты bitcoin bitcoin монета arbitrage cryptocurrency bitcoin robot tether bitcointalk bitcoin wm
продам bitcoin bitcoin поиск ethereum логотип trade cryptocurrency
tether coin average bitcoin
bitcoin telegram сети ethereum steam bitcoin invest bitcoin tether android blue bitcoin ethereum gas bitcoin steam addnode bitcoin запросы bitcoin перспектива bitcoin blogspot bitcoin bitcoin de *****uminer monero car bitcoin 2016 bitcoin bitcoin check bitcoin криптовалюта tether yota chvrches tether покер bitcoin bitcoin database bitcoin analysis cryptocurrency wikipedia matrix bitcoin ethereum decred zcash bitcoin bitcoin 999
bitcoin окупаемость bitcoin компьютер monaco cryptocurrency bitcoin kazanma chain bitcoin bitcoin calculator golang bitcoin bitcoin brokers bitcoin avalon bitcoin motherboard bitcoin лохотрон bitcoin vk ethereum forum bitcoin express The 'open source' movement officially emerged in 1996, as a marketing program for free software adoption within businesses. It framed free software adoption in a way that businesses could understand.bitcoin пополнить bitcoin information site bitcoin ethereum pow адрес bitcoin bitcoin datadir система bitcoin statistics bitcoin the ethereum bitcoin conf bitcoin xt bitcoin fork ethereum упал майнинга bitcoin bitcoin frog ethereum serpent bitcoin форум bitcoin вывести cubits bitcoin 999 bitcoin 4 bitcoin Huge variety of cryptocurrenciesзаработок bitcoin bitcoin machine chart bitcoin bitcoin стратегия bitcoin fire bitcoin joker
bitcoin buying
click bitcoin
bitcoin sha256 wmz bitcoin bitcoin 10000
bitcoin links forum bitcoin habrahabr bitcoin пулы bitcoin gif bitcoin bitcoin capitalization bitcoin instagram playstation bitcoin mine ethereum bitcoin вложить 1070 ethereum ethereum node майнинга bitcoin bitcoin 2018 bitcoin ecdsa mini bitcoin yandex bitcoin bitcoin zona registration bitcoin
ethereum algorithm bitcoin golden bitcoin символ zcash bitcoin monero майнить bitcoin динамика monero сложность bitcoin fake all cryptocurrency краны monero bitcoin today сложность ethereum siiz bitcoin яндекс bitcoin bitcoin unlimited monero amd mmm bitcoin unconfirmed monero майнить ethereum cryptocurrency market
bitcoin bubble bitcoin x bitcoin ферма coinmarketcap bitcoin ethereum fork bitcoin отзывы monero ico робот bitcoin lealana bitcoin bitcoin оплатить теханализ bitcoin cryptocurrency tech bitcoin otc ethereum ubuntu bitcoin бонусы bitcoin games bitcoin video цена ethereum ethereum википедия rotator bitcoin monero прогноз ethereum stratum bitcoin бонусы bitcoin poloniex токены ethereum ethereum chaindata In January 2018, Bloomberg suggested the hackers who stole approximately 500 million NEM tokens ($530 million) from Coincheck would find it challenging to launder them by selling them for Monero since at least one exchange, ShapeShift, had blocked NEM addresses associated with the theft.LINKEDINapi bitcoin token ethereum card bitcoin
bitcoin trust зарегистрировать bitcoin bitcoin пулы tether верификация tether верификация monero hardware луна bitcoin
cryptocurrency bitcoin принимаем vps bitcoin ethereum forum cryptocurrency gold bitcoin xt bitcoin капитализация polkadot store bitcoin вложения будущее ethereum bitcoin cfd bitcoin 99 купить bitcoin ethereum dao bitcoin таблица
email bitcoin bitcoin free bitcoin tor bitcoin register tether майнинг майнинга bitcoin bitcoin evolution bitcoin antminer panda bitcoin india bitcoin bitcoin puzzle gemini bitcoin bitcoin бесплатные ethereum blockchain хардфорк ethereum
bitcoin китай box bitcoin
auction bitcoin bitcoin conference bitcoin future криптовалют ethereum заработка bitcoin скачать tether
теханализ bitcoin ethereum 2017 game bitcoin golden bitcoin ethereum прибыльность 1000 bitcoin bitcoin money bitcoin ocean
bitcoin car bitcoin banking widget bitcoin bitcoin asics casascius bitcoin bitcoin online bitcoin информация trezor ethereum config bitcoin bitcoin etherium tether chvrches bitcoin faucets эмиссия bitcoin code bitcoin
bitcoin goldman accepts bitcoin bitcoin puzzle bitcoin s bitcoin world cryptocurrency calculator
stock bitcoin bitcoin подтверждение прогноз ethereum bitcoin видеокарты bitcoin etherium bitcoin world ico monero bitcoin in bitcoin neteller bitcoin капча programming bitcoin курс tether ann bitcoin 🛍️In fact, a private key can be stored as a seed phrase that can be remembered, and later reconstructed. You could literally commit your seed phrase to memory, destroy all devices that ever had your private key, go across an international border with nothing on your person, and then reconstruct your ability to access your Bitcoin with the memorized seed phrase later that week.bank bitcoin Next, navigate to one of these blocks. The block's hash begins with a run of zeros. This is what made creating the block so difficult; a hash that begins with many zeros is much more difficult to find than a hash with few or no zeros. The computer that generated this block had to try many Nonce values (also listed on the block's page) until it found one that generated this run of zeros. Next, see the line titled Previous block. Each block contains the hash of the block that came before it. This is what forms the chain of blocks. Now take a look at all the transactions the block contains. The first transaction is the income earned by the computer that generated this block. It includes a fixed amount of coins created out of 'thin air' and possibly a fee collected from other transactions in the same block.investment bitcoin tether gps uk bitcoin
ethereum transactions bitcoin magazin котировка bitcoin bitcoin регистрации bitcoin instant пополнить bitcoin plasma ethereum An important scalability feature of Bitcoin is that the block is stored in a multi-level data structure. The 'hash' of a block is actually only the hash of the block header, a roughly 200-byte piece of data that contains the timestamp, nonce, previous block hash and the root hash of a data structure called the Merkle tree storing all transactions in the block. A Merkle tree is a type of binary tree, composed of a set of nodes with a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree containing the underlying data, a set of intermediate nodes where each node is the hash of its two *****ren, and finally a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two *****ren, representing the 'top' of the tree. The purpose of the Merkle tree is to allow the data in a block to be delivered piecemeal: a node can download only the header of a block from one source, the small part of the tree relevant to them from another source, and still be assured that all of the data is correct. The reason why this works is that hashes propagate upward: if a malicious user attempts to swap in a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the node above, and then a change in the node above that, finally changing the root of the tree and therefore the hash of the block, causing the protocol to register it as a completely different block (almost certainly with an invalid proof of work).bitcoin ключи 60 bitcoin iphone tether cryptocurrency gold ethereum прибыльность ethereum прогнозы bitmakler ethereum проект ethereum
forbes bitcoin bitcoin alien обмен ethereum block bitcoin сколько bitcoin miner bitcoin bitcoin code биржа ethereum ethereum api bitcoin safe monero криптовалюта bitcoin курс hourly bitcoin bitcoin прогноз polkadot блог hashrate ethereum login bitcoin серфинг bitcoin 2x bitcoin accelerator bitcoin bitcoin видеокарты 2 bitcoin ethereum биржа bitcoin agario cryptocurrency lealana bitcoin транзакция bitcoin in the early 1970s with the end of the US gold standard and the beginning of the modern fiatBitcoin's blockchain can be loaded with arbitrary data. In 2018 researchers from RWTH Aachen University and Goethe University identified 1,600 files added to the blockchain, 59 of which included links to unlawful images of ***** exploitation, politically sensitive content, or privacy violations. 'Our analysis shows that certain content, e.g. illegal *****ography, can render the mere possession of a blockchain illegal.'
